Immigrant Bengalis

Introduction

It was October, 2014. We flew to Shanghai, China, and then traveled by train to Suzhou, to attend China's first biotech conference. We were invited guests from America. All the arrangements, including our visas, had been made by Chinese organizations. They provided beautiful hotels with plenty of amenities just like five-star hotels in America.  Our hotel overlooked a pond. So, we had a beautiful scenic view. The morning after the day of our arrival in Suzhou, while searching for food at the buffet breakfast that offered Chinese, Western, and international dishes, I met Ananda-da. His excitement to see me was matched by my own. Over the next three days, we shared meals and discussed various scientific topics, further deepening my admiration for his work and gaining new insights. Ananda-da  came to China as an advisor, particularly on how to  set up a Recombinant DNA Laboratory. His next journey was from China to Kolkata, where he would be the chief guest at the Narendrapur University convocation at Narendrapur.

I had known Ananada-da for quite some time. I did not know him in India, but I knew him from the early part of my life in USA. Then we became close to each other. One day I found out that he knew Sanskrit well, and he used to chant the Gayatri Mantra every morning, saying that he had read most of the Hindu Epic, Mahabharata, in Sanskrit with his father.  I should mention that whenever I was in trouble, I used to reach out to Ananda-da for advice. He helped me always.  His helping hand was always open.

This Ananda-da is the famous Ananda Mohan Chakravarti, who radically changed legal opinions on ownership of “genetically engineered organisms” in 1981 and inadvertently encouraged unprecedented levels of biotech innovation and commercialization in subsequent years. The U.S. biotech industry developed tremendously which was not possible without his work, keeping both biomedical science and the law side by side.

An Homage to Ananda Mohan Chakravarti for his Role as a Pioneer in Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Commercialization

Alok Bandyopadhyay

Ananda Mohan Chakravarti (April 1938 - July, 2020)

​Early Life and Education

Ananda Mohan Chakravarti, born on April 4, 1938, in Sainthia, West Bengal, India, was the youngest of seven children. From an early age, he showed a keen interest in science and the Sanskrit language. He completed his early education at Sainthia High School and Ramakrishna Belur Vidyamandira before earning a bachelor's degree in chemistry from St. Xavier's College, Kolkata. He later obtained his MSc and PhD in Biochemistry from the University of Calcutta under the mentorship of Prof. Sailesh Chandra Ray.

Career and Research

Chakravarti 's journey in research began in 1965 when he performed his postdoctoral training under Prof. Irwin 'Gunny' Gonzalez at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. In Gonzalez's laboratory, Chakravarti learned about the pathways of hydrocarbon decay in a Pseudomonas bacteria.

His groundbreaking work began in 1971 at the General Electric Company's R&D Center (GE) in Schenectady, New York. Here, he genetically engineered a new species of Pseudomonas bacteria, capable of metabolizing oil at a much faster rate than existing strains. This "superbug," later known as Pseudomonas putida, could digest about two-thirds of the hydrocarbons in a typical oil spill. This innovation gained international attention when GE applied for a US patent on behalf of Chakravarti.  This was the first-ever attempt to patent a “man-made” life form, for a genetically modified organism.

The Diamond v. Chakravarti Case

Chakravarti 's patent application for his genetically engineered bacterium faced initial rejection from the U.S. Patent Office, which argued that living organisms could not be patented. However, GE took the matter to the United States Customs and Patent Appeals Court where the decision of the US Patent Office was overturned. The case eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court. In a landmark decision in 1980, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Chakravarti (and GE) stating that "a live, human-made microorganism is patentable matter" under Title 35 U.S.C. 101.

This decision not only secured the patent for Chakravarti but also set a precedent that paved the way for numerous patents in later years by other researchers on genetically modified organisms. This ruling was instrumental in the subsequent growth of the U.S. biotech industry, enabling companies to innovate and commercialize biotechnological advancements without fear of legal obstacles. 

Superbug and GE

This decision opened the door for patents on genetically modified organisms, particularly superbugs, and spurred the growth of the U.S. biotech industry. GE took a prominent role in developing a bioremediation path to help clean up environmental pollutions such as oil spills using the Chakravarti “superbug”. . Several companies expressed keen interest in being collaborators. This was an exciting time for young scientists. Unfortunately, commercialization of “superbugs” for clean-up of oil spills proved to be elusive because of many questions, some answerable, some not. Time required for large scale production of superbugs to address a huge oil spill could not be predicted. Also, how rapidly the superbugs would eat up the oil was not known. Finally, would it be wise to release “man-made bacteria” on a natural resource like the ocean without knowing the long-term consequences?  As a result, GE had to drop its efforts to commercialize the Chakravarti “superbug”.

Impact on Biotechnology

Chakravarti's research laid the foundation for modern biotechnology. His work on genetically engineered organisms paved the way for the commercialization of many subsequent biotech innovations, including life-saving treatments such as insulin therapy. The establishment of Genentech in California, the first U.S. biotech company, was built on the principles of Chakravarti's research. Federal legislation, such as the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, further supported private sector innovation, allowing universities and small businesses to retain ownership of their inventions.

Later Life and Contributions

After leaving GE, Chakravarti served as a professor of microbiology and immunology at the University of Illinois College of Medicine in Chicago. He was also a member of the National Research Council's biotechnology committee and an advisor to several international organizations.

Chakravarti continued his groundbreaking research, focusing on cancer regression and the role of bacterial proteins in cell cycle progression. His lab worked to elucidate the role of the bacteria cupridoxin and cytochrome in cancer regression and cell cycle progression. These proteins were previously known to be involved in bacterial electron transport. He isolated azurine, a bacterial protein with potential antineoplastic properties.  He expanded his lab work to include multiple microbiological species, including Neisseria, Plasmodia, and Aciditiobacillus ferroxidans

In 2001,  Professor Chakravarti founded a company  called CDG Therapeutics, (incorporated in Delaware) that holds proprietary information regarding five patents generated by his work at the University of Illinois at Chicago. The University of Illinois owns the rights to the patents, but has issued an exclusive license to CDG Therapeutics.  In 2008, Professor Chakravarti  co-founded Amrita Therapeutics Limited, a second biopharmaceutical discovery company registered in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, an effective  therapy against cancer and/or other major public health threats derived from bacterial products found in the human body, For vaccine and diagnostic development. Amrita Therapeutics Limited received initial funding from Gujarat Venture Finance Limited in late 2008, and a grant for a two-year research programme in 2010 from the Indian Department of Biotechnology under the Biotechnology Industry Promotion Program (BIPP). Ananda-da and his coworkers  completed initial clinical trial, known as Phase I and Phase 2, but were unable to proceed to Phase 3 clinical trials because of lack of industrial sponsorship and collaboration.

A Big Loss

 On the morning of July 10, 2020, we lost one of our dearest dadas, that is, Ananda-da forever. I knew his wife Mrs. Krishna Chakravarti and talked to her regarding science when I met her in Suzhou, China. We offer our deepest condolences to her and her family,

At the same time, the biotech world lost one of its pioneers, but his legacy lives on through the countless innovations and advancements his work made possible. Ananda Mohan Chakravarti's life and remarkable research changed the world, proving that with knowledge, dedication and creativity, we can overcome challenges and create a better future for all.

Legacy

The Supreme Court's decision in Diamond v. Chakravarti not only validated Chakravarti’s work but also opened the doors for the commercialization of biotechnology based on recombinant DNA technology. Without this ruling, the biotech industry as we know it today might not exist. Chakravarti's inventions have led to life-saving treatments, such as insulin therapy, and have allowed U.S. biotech companies to prosper.

Humans get access to licenses for patents on microorganisms or plants when they go through fundamental changes at the biological level, externally induced from different walks of life, harboring original and innovative ideas. Indeed, industry commentators have stated that "Diamond versus Chakravarti, commercial biotechnology based on recombinant DNA technology would not exist today."  With the patent-protection capabilities of modified living organisms, U.S. biotech companies have prospered, and life-saving treatments (such as insulin therapy) have been commercialized.

Conclusion

Ananda Mohan Chakravarti's (Ananda-da ‘s) contributions to biotechnology and genetic engineering have had a profound impact on the field and the world. His pioneering work on recombinant DNA technology and genetically modified organisms revolutionized environmental science and medicine. ​

(Posted October 4, 2024)

Reprinted with permission from Ananda Sangbad, October 2024, a publication by Ananda Mandir, Somerset, NJ.

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Note: Readers interested in commenting on this article should email their remarks to debsmee572@gmail.com or amitabhanj@gmail.com

Comments from Prasanta R. (received on November 1, 2024):  Nice ones, as usual... The first one is representative one for first gen immigrants I should think... And Dr Chakraborty is a discovery, though I very faintly recall having read about him or about similar issues doing the rounds in USA. A pioneer surely...

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